(There will be spoilers to Animal Farm and The Handmaid's Tale in the following writeup, if you do not like spoilers, please read Animal Farm first. You have been warned.)
Inception of this Work
After recently reading the
Handmaid's Tale and later watching the Handmaid's Tale Hulu Series, I wanted to revisit my reading of some totalitarian literature to reflect effectively on different totalitarian models that have existed in works of literature, and I decided to begin by reading
Animal Farm by George Orwell again. Of course I had read Animal Farm many years ago as a child, but reading Animal Farm again let me see it as the template of a totalitarian system that it always was.
There seems to be several factors to a functioning totalitarian system. Some mythos for why the government is structured as it is, some underlying rationale or justification for its existence, some means of distracting the populace from their suffering, to include positive propaganda about the state, negative propaganda about other states, an active effort to rewrite history in whatever means seems appropriate to help the state dominate the people, an active attempt to subject the populace to excessive work and bare minimum nourishment to inhibit the ability for them to reason rationally or have sufficient energy to pose any resistance, eventually some form of overt terror or violence that can be used to threaten the populace, and an active threat that what one says can be overheard and create doubts about one's loyalty to the state. Also central to the functioning of a totalitarian state is the perception that the values that are positive within the state are "loyalty and obedience" [Orwell, page 70] as opposed to say "freedom" or "bravery".
Certainly, in the case of Animal Farm there was an act of rebellion that brought on the beginning of the totalitarian state that represents the bulk of Animal Farm. In the Handmaid's Tale, the Republic of Gilead is brought about after a coup, just like in Animal Farm. In various other totalitarian states, there have been dramatic seizures of power as of course the Soviet Union, upon which Animal Farm was itself based, as well as Nazi Germany, Pinochet's Chile, among others. I make this observation to stress that a violent takeover, a coup, is NOT necessary for the institution of a totalitarian state. It is simply necessary that there are sufficient people in power, to either little by little, or all of a sudden, make the changes necessary to render the people helpless to the control of the state. In the case of Animal Farm, a coup was needed to move the drama along.
Mythos or Rationale
In Animal Farm, the main rationale behind the rebellion is first articulated by Old Major, a senior pig who has lived a full life and decides to share what he has learned over the course of his life. In Old Major's eloquent speech, he says:
Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength; and the very instance that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty. [Orwell, page 28]
He then continues to lay out what he sees as the root cause of their misery: "Because nearly the whole of the produce of our labor is stolen from us by human beings." [Orwell, page28]. It is here that Old Major notes an injustice that is unfortunately familiar to many: being paid far far less than one is worth. Early on in the Animal Farm period a description is given of the bliss the animals are experiencing. The narrator states,
All through that summer, the work of the farm went like clockwork. The animals were happy as they had never conceived it possible to be. Every mouthful of food was an acute positive pleasure, now that it was truly their own food, produced by themselves and for themselves, not doled out to them by a grudging master. With the worthless parasitical human beings gone, there was more for everyone to eat. There was more leisure too, inexperienced though the animals were. [Orwell, page 46]
Here we see a growing sense among the animals that the Utopia that Old Major stated was needed had in fact occurred. The animals were getting a genuine sense that their quality of lives had improved, that they are not in a state of abject poverty, that they are not suffering from chronic hunger, and that they were in fact thriving.
Later, as Snowball makes the case for the construction of the windmill, one can see in his argument for the windmill his legitimate concern for the wellbeing of his fellow animals, and one can see how Snowball's values and arguments match the increased labor that will be required with the potential benefits to the Animals. Snowball claimed that after a year of difficult labor, upon the completion of the windmill, ". . . so much labor would be saved that the animals would only need to work three days a week." [Orwell, page 65] Napoleon then shoots down Snowball's assertions, claiming that the construction of the windmill would cause the animals to starve due to the diversion of their labor from the cultivation of crops. To these statements Snowball countered passionately and eloquently:
In glowing sentences he painted a picture of Animal Farm as it might be when sordid labor was lifted from the animals' backs. His imagination had now run far beyond chaff cutters and turnip slicers. Electricity, he said, could operate threshing machines, ploughs, harrows, rollers, and reapers, and binders, besides supplying every stall with its own electric light, hot and cold water, and an electric heater. [Orwell, page 67]
Snowball's case is absolutely centered on reducing the labor of the animals and increasing their quality of life. Of course, it is at this moment that Snowball is run out of Animal Farm by Napoleon's dogs. From this point forward, the Utopic nature of Animal Farm descends into a dystopic nightmare, a nightmare worse than it had been under Jones.
The underlying mythos or rationale for Animal Farm is that it provides greater dignity for it's inhabitants than they had previously known, greater well-being, greater food, more leisure, and less exploitation. This is central to the functioning of the totalitarian system because it provides a reason for existing, a story for why the country needs to be the way it is. In a certain sense, all governments need a underlying myth or story to make the governed have some faith in their government, to have some pride in their government, and to help to discourage rebellion and chaos against the government.
The need for these myths become more clear as animals begin to in some cases express and in other cases simply sense their perilous situation.
Propaganda
In order to control a population, which of course is the goal of a totalitarian society, there are three main approaches: you can control people by controlling what they believe, you can control people by force, or you can control people via a blend of these approaches. Moreover, the degree to which a country tries to oppress its people is directly related to the type of control mechanisms required. For example, in an ideal society, there would still need propaganda to remind people of the beneficence of their society, the values they hold dear, and the benefits of remaining organized in the manner that they are. For other societies, societies that utterly deprive people of their autonomy and agency, there is a need for force and violence, and such a society would have little need for propaganda, at least not to those who are being deprived of their autonomy and agency. As most types of governing structures lie somewhere between these two extremes, there is a need for propaganda to encourage people to have faith in their form of government, to understand why some sacrifices were being asked of them, and to continue their allegiance to their system of government.
Animal Farm takes us through five phases of governmental control. The first phase is that which is led by Mr. Jones, in which the animals are subject to absolute control through fear and panic. The second is the immediate post-rebellion phase in which each animal feels that they will inhabit the utopia predicted by Old Major, where animals will live free and live without exploitation. The third phase is when the stated values begin to be distorted as the Pigs seize power little by little. The fourth phase is that where the democracy of the animals is essentially suppressed. The fifth phase is a return to the Mr. Jones style dystopic control of the animals, except with the pigs running the show.
During the period when Jones is in control, there is no need for propaganda, at least presented by the humans, represented by Mr. Jones, to the animals, for any act they do against that desired by the humans will be punished severely. Sadly and shamefully, there have been periods when some groups of humans have been put to such a state of slavery, and where these very same implements of control have been utilized against humans. The infamous period of Slavery in the United States as well as the period of slavery during the reign of Shi Huang Di are good examples. During Shi Huang Di's reign, for example, they had these special neck rings with a spike, the purpose of which was to prevent those wearing it from standing with their back straight, it was a means of exerting absolute brutal control over other human beings. There were similar implements used during the period of slavery in the United States, chains, collars, and the threat of horrific whippings. During periods such as this, there is no reason for propaganda. The message that is sent by the enslavers to the enslaved is that there are two alternatives, "this abject brutal subjugation where you have no choice or agency over your life, where you cannot even stand up properly" or you are physically hurt severely or are killed.
During the second phase, in the immediate post-rebellion period, propaganda is used internally by the government structure to lay out the rationale behind the rebellion, the shared values or basis for the rebellion, and the beliefs that the emancipated animals share that justify this new situation. In this phase, propaganda is also used externally to justify the rebellion to foreign actors. Real life examples of both of these types of propaganda can be found for example in the Declaration of Independence of the United States. Consider the following passage:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
The internal type of propaganda I described earlier, which here also can be seen to simultaneously serve external purposes, can be found in the first lines of this passage, where the "unalienable Rights" are laid out, that each person has a right to "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of happiness", and that "all men are created equal." In this portion the document lists the foundational values of the soon to be birthed nation, it is an aspirational statement. The external type of propaganda can also be found here in the lines justifying the overthrow of the existing government.
In the context of Animal Farm, this type of internal propaganda can be seen in the Beasts of England Song. A reading of the song reveals the desire to throw off the shackles imposed on them by humans and a desire to possess all of nature independent of humans. The Beasts of England is a kind of aspirational articulation of the desires Old Major expressed for his fellow animals in his speech to them. At the same time, the use of propaganda for external purposes was also in effect as can be demonstrated in the following passage:
Every day Snowball and Napoleon sent out flights of pigeons whose instructions were to mingle with the animals on neighboring farms, tell them the story of the Rebellion, and teach them the tune of Beasts of England. [Orwell, page 54]
For the Animals on Animal Farm, the singing of the Beasts of England is a way of reminding themselves of the rationale for the rebellion and an affirmation that there is a justification for their new way of life. It is a way of letting them know that they can be proud of their new system of government and the values it represents. Moreover, at this moment, early on in the post Rebellion period, the animals can see the benefits promised by Old Major that would occur when the humans were overthrown. For the external receivers of the propaganda Napoleon and Snowball are sending via pigeon to other farms, there is a goal of providing animals in a state of slavery hope and a vision for what is possible, and by so doing encouraging other rebellions on other farms.
The third phase is the most tenuous for the government's legitimacy and stability. It is at this moment when propaganda is beginning to be blended with force, or the threat of force, often includes gaslighting, has increasing realization among the governed that things are not consistent with the foundational values, or at least stated foundational values of the government, and the government too has become aware of lapses in belief among the governed. In real life, we can see this kind of propaganda in the United States(circa 2022 should you stumble upon this later in the future), when news outlets state that the economy is great while many of the biggest and most profitable companies in the world lay off workers en-masse and are considering further layoffs. It is what Orwell was to later describe as "doublespeak" and "newspeak".
This third phase begins quite abruptly when Napoleon settles an Argument with Snowball by force. In a passionate argument for the construction of the windmill, Snowball argues that the short term sacrifice of their labor for the construction of the windmill will yield actual tangible quality of life benefits to all the animals; that is, he was pleading with them in a manner consistent with the goals espoused by Old Major's original statements to the animals as with their distillation in the Beasts of England. To put it differently, Snowball represents Animalism, Snowball represents the goals that the Rebellion was predicated on, he represents the aspirations that Old Major had for the animals in a post Human, or at least Post Mr-Jones world. His sudden ouster with the dogs which had been raised by Napoleon in secret eliminates the democratic aspects of the society, the debates and the tacit consent of the governed, and replaces it with an autocracy headed by Napoleon. Napoleon stated:
He announced that from now on the Sunday-morning Meetngs would come to an end. They were unnecessary, he said, and wasted time. In future all questions related to the working of the farm would besettled by a special committee of pigs, presided over by himself. These would meet in private and afterwards communicate their decisions to the others. The animals would still assemble on Sunday mornings to salute the flag, sing Beasts of England, and receive their orders for the week; but there would be no more debates. [Orwell page 68]
The first sentence makes clear the transformation to a Napoleon led society, but it is interesting to note that though debates have been eliminated, that while aspects of democracy have been axed, the pageantry is maintained. By having the animals salute the flag and sing Beasts of England every Sunday, it is hoped that the animals will be sufficiently confused that they will still believe that the government will be seeking goals aligned with their best interest and hence acquiese to these new changes. It is at this moment that that Napoleon, through Squealer, attempts to reassure the animals of Animal Farm that he is going to look out for their best interests:
I trust that every animal here appreciates the sacrifice that Comrade Napoleon has made in thaking this extra labour upon himself. Do not imagine, Comrades, that leadership is a pleasure! On the contrary, it is a deep and heavy responsibility. No one believes more firmly than Comrade Napoleon that all animals are equal. He would be only too happy to let you make your decisions for yourselves. But sometimes you might make the wrong decisions, comrades, and then where should we be? [Orwell, page 69]
But should the animals not realize that they have no longer any control, Squealer notes that the new values to be aspired to are "loyalty and obedience" [Orwell page 70] and moreover that, "One false step, and our enemies would be upon us. Surely comrades, you do not want Jones back?" [Orwell, page 70] Here we see the gaslighting that the propaganda at this third stage includes, it is a way that the government tries to let their citizens know that their plight could be worse if they disobey or rebel.
Of course it is during this period that the pigs are little by little seizing greater and greater control over the other animals, applying further and further mechanisms of control, of which hunger and exhaustion are two, until they finally reveal their absolute control and reveal the use of terror. It is during this period that a society can fall victim to greater domination by the governing structure or can attempt a redirection through political or extra-political means.
We can see the transformation of the governing structure occur little by little as each of the Seven Commandments are systematically violated by the pigs. Each of these violations is then explained to the other animals as necessary, for their benefit, not actually a violation, as the law is seen to be re-written, we later find out by Squealer, and is finally justified with the gaslighting threat of a possible return of Mr. Jones if the pigs are resisted.
This transformation is aided by a systematic maintenance of hunger and exhaustion in the animals. The initial introduction of this technique can be found the moment Napoleon decides that the Windmill will be built, "He did not give any reason for having changed his mind, but merely warned the animals that this extra task would mean very hard work; it might even be necessary to reduce their rations." [Orwell, page 71] During this period propaganda is used to attempt to convince the animals that the situation is not deteriorating for them. One such instance occurs when each Sunday Squealer reports food production: "On Sunday mornings Squealer, holding down a long strip of paper with his trotter, would read out to them lists of figures proving that the production of every class of foodstuff had increased by two hundred per cent, three hundred per cent, or five hundred per cent, as the case might be." [Orwell, page 99] Furthermore, during a previous episode of difficult labor, the speeches that Squealer would give lend insight into the propagandistic attempt via doublespeak, though Orwell had not yet coined this term, to try to keep the animals spirits up, by trying to make the animals believe that labor is a good thing. Squealer's speeches focused on the "joy of service and the dignity of labor." [Orwell, page 84-5] It is difficult to see how this is different from the cynical use of Arbeit Macht Frei at the gates of Nazi concentration camps. We later find out that the hunger and exhaustion had been totally intentional all along, "He believed that he was right in saying that the lower animals on Animal Farm did more work and received less food than any animals in the county." [Orwell, page 135-6]
It is during this third phase that the animals have the greatest doubt and grow in their concern that things are not what they should be. In one moment we have Boxer expressing his shock at the new situation:
I do not understand it. I would not have believed that such things could happen on our farm. It must be due to some fault in ourselves. The solution as I see it is to work harder. [Orwell, page 94]
In this act of reflection we see a stunned Boxer, an individual who is trying to rationalize what is happening, an individual who is having difficulty comprehending what is happening for what it is. It is similar to like a Stockholm syndrome. As a side note, Boxer states a phrase that has, unfortunately, echoed through time: "I would not have believed that such things could happen on our farm." Recent situations in the world have brought about such absurdities and atrocities that variations on this phrase have appeared in the media related to many topics including the election of Trump, the overturning of Roe v. Wade, the assault on the capitol on 6 January 2021, and various other horrific and terrible things. It is a lesson to never doubt what can happen when enough people sit on the sidelines and wonder whether what their eyes see is the truth or a mirage, it might sadly be a horrible truth. Clover, likewise, has deep reservations about the situation in Animal Farm at this moment and the narrator expresses the poignant and moving thoughts that Clover would have experienced, had she been capable of articulating her thoughts,
If she herself had had any picture of the future, it had been of a society of animals set free from hunger and the whip, all equal, each working according to his capacity, the strong protecting the weak, as she had protected the lost brood of ducklings with her foreleg on the night of Major's speech. [Orwell, page 95]
It is a reinforcement of the fact that the animals were aware of the meaning of Major's speech, the ideal of fairness that Major communicated, and their panic as they realize that the situation is not as it should be.
It must not be omitted that the construction of the windmill and the propaganda spoken about Plinkington and Frederick are meant to serve as distracting goals for the animals. The pigs want to focus the animal's attentions on Plinkington and Frederick, in order that they focus less on their own suffering, their own hunger, their own exhaustion, and develop fear and panic at the thought that Animal Farm could be overtaken by either of these farmers. The pigs want the animals to focus on the goal of completing the windmill, and what the windmill will provide, the ease to them that will be gained upon the windmill's completion, at least the perceived ease that they will gain on its completion, for by doing so they will focus less on their suffering and hunger. This is another aspect of the control mechanism utilized in Animal Farm.
We then arrive at the fourth stage of the governance at Animal Farm. The pigs declare to the other animals that the singing of the Beasts of England is no longer permitted[Orwell, page 96]. The banning of the Singing of the Beasts of England is analogous to the banning of books in other autocratic societies, or forbidding individuals from learning to read and write. Moreover, the forbidding of songs like Beasts of England is designed to obliterate hope. To put it differently, the singing of patriotic songs, or the reading of literature that inspires the human spirit, perhaps reading the work of others who have shaken off their shackles, perhaps hearing stories of successful rebellion, or a goal worth pursuing is repeatedly responsible for the improvement of the human condition. It is for this reason that "slave owning states did all they could to suppress news of the rebellion" [Britannica, 2020] when Haitian slaves rebelled and were able to cause the French to relinquish control of Haiti, leaving the formerly enslaved to run their country.
Over time this state of being hardens into total domination. This then is the fifth stage of governance at Animal Farm. At this point the pigs have become indistinguishable from the humans, and the animals are in a more abject dominated state than they ever had been. Moreover, at this point, the possibility of rebellion has been effectively eliminated. The animals are overworked and underfed, their morale is destroyed, they realize that the situation is dire, and there is no one who can lead them all as a group to attempt anything resembling the previous rebellion. It is an ending without hope.
Three Important Character Arcs
Though Orwell develops each of his characters to a startling extent considering his concision in this work, there are three that particularly stand out to me as important in the context of the current discussion. Boxer represents a true believer, Snowball represents a faithful leader who is fully committed to the utopic vision laid out by Old Major, and Clover is the sharp witted citizen who observes things as they are.
Snowball's character arc begins with him being a member of Animal Farm, like all the other animals. He becomes instrumental to the formulation of Animalism, and carefully designs the windmill as a means of helping to achieve the goal of a higher quality of life for the animals. Snowball is critical in the successful outcome of the rebellion, and wins a medal for his participation. When Napoleon finds Snowball's argumentative prowess superior to his own, and hence feels his dominance threatened, he utilizes force to eliminate his rival from Animal Farm. As of this moment Snowball was entirely on board with the principles laid out by Old Major.
Post expulsion, Snowball is summoned by Napoleon and his minions as a suitable scapegoat for harmful things that are occurring on the farm. Moreover, his official history morphs from being a celebrated hero of the Battle of the Cowshed to a double agent for Jones and traitor from the start. It demonstrates how totalitarian societies can re-write history in such a way that individuals are villified post expulsion and even post death.
Boxer, on the other hand, is a true believer. He lives originally by one Motto, "I will work harder," and later adds the motto "Napoleon is always right." Boxer's use of the motto "I will work harder" was predicated on a belief that by working harder, he would contribute best to the wellbeing of all the animals. After an interchange that involves Squealer's threat that if Napoleon's commands were not followed Mr. Jones might return, Boxer exclaims that "Napoleon is always right." In that sense, Boxer was trying to continue acting in the best interests of the Animals.
Boxer, of course, is known for his incredible strength, his tremendous work ethic, and his pivotal role in the Battle of the Cowshed. He is crucial for the completion of the Windmill the two times that it is achieved. He is a natural leader who leads by example, and even though he might not be the most intelligent of the animals, he is genuine in his desire to help the animals.
But upon Boxer's injury he is sent to the glue factory, just as Old Major had described the the fate of all farm animal, ". . . the very instance that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty." [Orwell, page 28] It is symbolic of the return of the iron tyranny to Animal Farm. But what is also significant about the Boxer storyline is the vicious and brutal lies that Squealer spreads about the manner in which Boxer was looked after by a veterinarian. This shows the manner in which totalitarian societies propagandize people's lives cynically. It demonstrates that in a society like this, the animals - people - can be exploited even in death.
With respect to Clover, we see a smart thoughtful animal, carefully reflecting on each violation of the Animal Farm Commandments, comparing the actions of the pigs to the written letter of the Commandments, each time discovering that they have been slightly changed. She represents those individuals who realize that the society is not living up to the values originally espoused in its founding.
Conclusion
What stood out for me about Animal Farm is that it is almost as if someone had decided to put together a how-to manual to running a totalitarian society, wrapped it in a heartfelt memorable story, wrote it in as few words as possible, and then achieved it miraculously. At the same time, and possibly for this very reason, it was chilling and terrifying, and the similarity of some news stories to the goings on in the modern world brought me some pause.
But what a great book!!
References
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Haitian Revolution". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Mar. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haitian-Revolution. Accessed 21 August 2022.
Orwell, George. Animal Farm (Signet Classics). United Kingdom, Signet Classics, 1999.
